Energy Sources of the Future Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Energy Sources of the Future - Essay Example Biomass Biomass is energy from organic matter and is usually in the form of â€Å"clean† carbo-hydrogen gas or COH2 (Valone). Biomass is also known as biofuel and is produced from organic material such as woodchips, animal wastes and seaweed (â€Å"Biomass†). These organic components are made into oil, natural gas or methanol. The COH2 gas derived from biomass â€Å"burns cleanly, [produces] water vapor† and a limited amount of CO2, which is the one the biomass consumed while it was still growing as a plant (Valone). David Wallman patented the process of producing COH2 from any biomass solution, and this is currently used as â€Å"municipal sewage treatment† and perhaps a replacement for foreign oil in the future (Valone). The biomass power station, which operates using David Wallman’s patented process, involves the burning of the animal or plant wastes. The heat that is produced from the burning is converted into steam and this steam powers the tur bines that convert mechanical energy into electricity (â€Å"Biomass†). When it comes to availability and renewability, the availability of biomass depends on the supply of organic wastes, which are actually relatively cheap to use (â€Å"Biomass†). ... Perhaps the only environmental issue associated with biomass is the greenhouse gas, which results from the combustion of organic fuel or biomass (â€Å"Biomass†). This would naturally bring about pollution. Other harmful effects of biomass production include destruction of the ecosystem, loss of biodiversity, competition for land and food, and excessive demand of the organic matter for water (Langeveld & Corre). Wind Power Wind power is obviously another very good alternative to fossil fuel use, and one that is becoming a more popular option in the United States (Walker). At the speed of around 25 km per hour, wind power can be used to produce electricity from towers with wind-blown propellers. The mechanical energy from the movement of the propellers is then converted into electricity (â€Å"Wind Power†). Wind power is both available and renewable because it needs no fuel; therefore, it is produced for free by the wind, except in some places which are not naturally win dy (â€Å"Wind Power†). Coastal areas, as well as open plains and the tops of rounded hills are the perfect places for the construction of wind farms because of the high availability of wind in these areas (â€Å"Wind Power†). Wind power is relatively practical and cheap at the cost of around â€Å"4 cents per kilowatt-hour† and is usually put up as â€Å"offshore wind farms† in open-water areas (Walker). In fact, Ireland’s eight-mile Arklow Bank Offshore Wind Park is made up of wind towers that can provide electrical power for 16,000 homes (Walker). As to environmental impact, wind power does not produce any greenhouse gases or other toxic waste products (â€Å"Wind Power†). Nevertheless, the propellers can occasionally kill birds that

Finding White Elephants in Dialogue Essay Example for Free

Finding White Elephants in Dialogue Essay Ernest Hemingway’s â€Å"Hills like White Elephants† presents its main subject not in a blatant manner but through the sum of what is implied and what is said. The title itself alludes to the negativity in which the situation is being accepted by the two main characters, though at varied levels. While the American man perceives their situation as the â€Å"white elephant†, the girl does not think so, at least not as much. This may be because she can think of another white elephant in her life. Meanwhile, the real action happens in the interaction between the American man and the girl, named Jig. Therefore, the text requires careful observation of human relationship in action. Furthermore, perusal of dialogue and even some symbolism reveal the couple’s reaction to that pregnancy and their contemplation of ending the â€Å"problem† or â€Å"white elephant† through abortion. A â€Å"white elephant† is after all â€Å"a metaphor for an expensive and burdensome property† (Link 67). In this short story, through the aid of dialogue the reader can perceive that the white elephant can represent something more subtle than Jig’s pregnancy; it can represent the man’s weakness and inability to take responsibility for his actions. The differences between the American man and the â€Å"generic† girl are emphasized subtly, but these differences affect the way in which the relationship can be interpreted, especially through these differences’ effects on the quiet but steady unraveling of the relationship. For example, the very appointment of a nationality to the man signifies that the girl is foreign, and therefore different from him. â€Å"In an impressive dialogue-driven narrative prose, Hemingway’s unnamed American male protagonist dominates the meeker, weaker-sexed Jig†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Rankin 234). They are separated by culture, nationality, gender and even by age. The American man has not impregnated a woman who may be nearer his supposed level of maturity and responsibility, but a young girl who he may have seduced. The fact that he is the one who cannot take responsibility for the pregnancy is ironic. It is also difficult for a girl who may naturally have expected to lean on an older man during crisis. In contrast to the idea that Jig is a young innocent who has been seduced and can be easily manipulated is Jig’s display of wit as compared to the more reactionary older man (Rankin 236). Jig sometimes denies degree of knowledge such as her familiarity with Anis de Toro: â€Å"I don’t know†¦is it good with water? (Hemingway)†. However, her conversation reveals that she is not as ignorant nor naive as she seems. She may be young but she is not to be swayed into making a decision just because it will please her lover. She says â€Å"Everything tastes like liquorice, especially all the things that you’ve waited for so long, like absinthe† (Hemingway). Jig is exerting some will, declaring what she wants but not directly. The point comes across anyway. While the man thinks of her pregnancy as the white elephant in their relationship, she does not believe it to be so: â€Å"They are lovely hills. They don’t really look like white elephants. I just meant the coloring of their skin through the trees† (Hemingway). Jig believes that although the pregnancy may be difficult on both of them, it promises something beautiful. She has her own opinion on the situation and is not afraid to say what is in her mind. Because there is an emphasis on the meaning of conversation in â€Å"Hills like White Elephants†, in this â€Å"barely 1500 words long [short story], repeated items are notable† (Link 67). It is through repetition that ideas and the story itself are instilled into the readers’ minds despite the ambiguous dialogue and seemingly mundane setting. â€Å"The couple’s power relationship also emerges in the prominence of questions in the text. Much of the dialogue†¦is a trading of questions and answers in which Jig asks a total of seventeen questions, thirteen of which are yes-no questions. The man only asks four questions, three of which he does not ask until the text is nearly finished† (Link 68). The couple is therefore engaged in a verbal tug of war in which each tries to achieve the agreement of the other. Jig is more curious and assertive, despite the fact that the man is expected to have more power over her, because of his gender and more mature age. She asks more questions about their situation, is almost pulled towards the man’s argument but continues to wonder openly about their situation. This questioning mind prevents her from fully regarding her pregnancy as a white elephant. â€Å"Hills like White Elephants† is a testament to the power of dialogue; though the wordings are not direct, the repetition makes up for any diminishing of clarity. The subject of whether or not to have an abortion performed on Jig has been handled in a subtle manner which separates it from other short stories, and even novels that deal with pregnancy out of wedlock and the question of what solution to take. Even what the metaphor will represent can be contested: if indeed the white elephant or burden is the pregnancy or the American man himself. Works Cited: Hemingway, Ernest. Hills like White Elephants. 12 April 2008 http://www. moonstar. com/~acpjr/Blackboard/Common/Stories/WhiteElephants. html. Link, Alex. Staking Everything On It: A Stylistic Analysis of Linguistic Patterns in Hills like White Elephants. The Hemingway Review (n. d. ): 66-74. Rankin, Paul. Hemingways Hills like White Elephants. Explicator (n. d. ): 234-237.

Black Friday: Tornado In Canada :: essays research papers

Black Friday: Tornado in Canada "The roof was caving in and I thought I was going to die. It was like your worst nightmare!" said Mary Grandish. Most people think they will die when they see,or hear of a tornado heading their way. Although all the details of the formation of a tornado are not yet understood, it is known that tornados are the result of great instability in the atmosphere and often appear during severe thunderstorms (see appendix #1 for a scientific explaination on how it really starts). Strong updrafts present in severe thunderstorms result in a rotational momentum. Falling rain and/or snow probably drags air from aloft when it comes falling down. The combination of severe thunderstorms and sweltering heat are the breeding grounds for a tornados' formation. The first sign of a tornado is a strong dust whirlwind along with a funnel growing from the storm cloud. A more organized funnel descends farther from the cloud, sometimes even touching the ground. Funnel winds generally move counterclockwise and the funnel can move slowly or at about 100/ft per second. Eventually the tornado becomes fragmented and dissipates causing the end of the tornado. Tornados are the cause of great destruction and devistation in the area in which they occur. For example the Tri-State Tornado of 1925 occured in the Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas States. This tornado was one of the largest tornados recorded in history. It killed nearly 625 people. However, the tornado which strikes closest to home has occured on what Canadians have come to know as "BLACK FRIDAY". The tornado of "Black Friday" touched down on July 31st, 1987 at 2:59 pm. (See appendix #2 for the torndo path). (See appendix #'s 4&5 for maps locating the disaster sights). 27 people were killed; 25 people died during the tornado and 2 died later in the hospital. Hundreds of other people were injured and thousands were left homeless. Edmontonians faced a horrible natural phenomenon which destroyed homes, farms, and businesses. (See appendix #3 for a picture of what it looked like after the tornado struck up the street). More than 25 auto dealers faced a loss of more than $100,000 worth of cars, which were struck by hail measurihg at up to 10 inches in circumference. Not only were auto dealers' cars affected, but many other privately owned cars were damaged to varying degrees. The Kennedale storm sewer overloaded and outfall collapsed, which caused many people to call in complaining of flooded basements. Damage estimites were listed at between $150-$300 million dollars. $20 million dollars damage was done to Evergreen Mobile Home Trailer Park; $50-$70 million dollars

Human ideal Essay

Human Ideal is a very subjective idea across the board. There are many factors that influence a person’s perspective on a prefect human ideal. The most prevalent factor seems to be the culture of the society. The culture and the society I was raised in brought me to the finalization of my personal human ideal. People should live to fulfill the ultimate good of happiness without stepping on others to reach it and at the same time to avoid extreme and take the middle way. My human ideal is pretty much stated in â€Å"Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle†, but the other texts have their own validated ways to reach the human ideal. The Odyssey portrayed a character who seems to be the ideal mortal. His name was Odysseus and he had fought for his country with bravery. The gods were all in favor of his homecoming from Troy because of his bravery. â€Å"You dog, you never thought I would any more come back from the land of Troy, and because of that you despoiled my household,†¦ and sought to win my wife while I was still alive, fearing neither the immortal gods who hold the wide heaven,†¦Now upon you all terms of destruction are fastened.†(Odyssey of Homer, 22:35-41) Odysseus’ house had been overtaken be suitors and the gods lead him to bring justice to the suitors. The suitors did not fear the â€Å"immortal gods† like Odysseus did so they were fated to be destroyed by the God-like Odysseus. The suitors would be an example of an anti-human ideal in the culture the book is based on. Gods play a huge role in deciding the correct way to be a mortal. If you did not fear them and respect their power, you would be looked down upon and would have â€Å"all terms of destruction† fastened upon you. Odysseus was a war hero who fought in Troy for his people and he alone survived and because of this he was held high above everyone else this is the major reason Zeus would grant him a glorious homecoming. In† Euthyphro†, the human ideal is portrayed to be very different than â€Å"The Odysseus†. In order in to be prefect human, you had to live life without  certainty and to always ask questions even when you feel you are correct in your way of thinking. Socrates believed that people were often ignorant and talked in a way where they were correct even when they far from it. Euthyphro was on his way to court where he had run into Socrates and Socrates asked him what he business was there. Euthyphro was there to prosecute his father for murder of a servant who had also committed murder. Socrates being the human ideal example for this text brought up the question of â€Å"If you had no clear knowledge of piety and impiety you would never have ventured to prosecute your old father for murder on behalf of servant† (Euthyphro). Socrates tested Euthyphro’s sense of piety because Socrates thought it was wrong that he had no doubt in his mind it was justified to bring his own father to court. Socrates believed you should always ask questions because not everything in the world can be black and white. Socrates believed that all things had a grey area where what is piety and what is impiety was unclear. This brought of the question should he not bring a murderer to count merely because it’s his own father and does it even make a difference if the person he murdered was a murderer himself? My personal favorite human ideal of all the books is the one from The â€Å"Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle†. The basic idea behind Aristotle’s book is that the ultimate goal in life is to achieve true happiness. This particular idea makes the most sense to me. â€Å"Happiness, then, is found to be something perfect and self-sufficient, being the end to which our actions are directed† (Aristotle, Page 15). This quote states that happiness is the final, the end and all other things will lead up to this. Happiness is stated to direct our actions because people all want to be happy. This idea gives people the feeling of â€Å"self-sufficient† because no other person can make another person achieve the ultimate good because it is all dependent on the person. Happiness is a perfect thing because no one truly knows what it is until they reach it themselves. The idea of happiness is subjective around the world given the different cultures so it is impossible to even begin to describe specifically how to reach the ultimate good. He also says â€Å"Since happiness is a certain sort of activity of the soul in accord with complete virtue, we must examine virtue; for that will perhaps also be a way to study happiness better† (Aristotle, 16). Happiness is a virtue and in  order to know happiness then you need to have an idea of what a virtue is. Virtue is the behavior showing high moral standards. Moral standards are important in all culture and especially in the Geek culture because of the gods who everyone seems to fear so greatly. They try to not offend any of the gods so their virtue is based around that for the most part. Which means their ultimate good involves pleasing the gods in order to achieve their goal of happiness. In John, the human ideal is a tad more divine than Aristotle’s view. John focuses more on having faith without doubt of its truth. Throughout the bible there are many examples that can be attached to this idea and John is no exception. Jesus was sent out in to the wilderness to survive for forth days and forty nights. The devil tempted him with power and ending of this suffering in the wilderness, but Jesus’ faith was much too strong for the devil. â€Å"The devil led him up to a high place and showed him in an instant all the kingdoms of the world. And he said to him, ‘I will give you all their authority and splendor; it has been given to me, and I can give it to anyone I want to. If you worship me, it will all be yours’† (John). The devil showed him the power he could have had if he would worship him, but of course it was in vain given he is Jesus and there is nothing in the world that could corrupt his faith. Jesus is the prime example of an ideal human and people believed if they acted like Jesus, then their life would have meaning and be complete. However, if it were any other mortal who was confronted with the offer that the devil made may have taken all that power in a heartbeat. The only way a person could reason with themselves in order to not take that deal would require a lot of faith in God and truth their decision may be rewarded in some way. The ideals presented in the Bible require people to have great faith in the Lord. My personal view of the human ideal is fairly general since I have no idea how to even get close to a perfect way to be human. My ideas agree with Aristotle in that happiness should be the ultimate goal no matter what way you achieve it. The one exception I have is that your path to happiness shouldn’t put others down and obstruct their path to happiness. If you feel there is no other option to reach your goal, then think again because there  is always a middle way and some way to reach your goal without hurting others. You need to live for each other and of course put your life or loved ones at the top of your list, but even a homeless drug addict on the street is a person and should be treated as such regardless of their poor choices in life. This also brings of the issue of what is that person has hurt someone. I feel that even if a person has intentional hurt another human being should at least have the chance to change unless they murdered, raped, or committed crimes as extreme as those. However, if the person shows no signs of regret or urge to reform, then justice will be properly laid onto the person in question. In this world, justice is a must because without it nothing is stopping people from obstructing other’s paths to happiness. Happiness is all too important in life to let a few hurt or corrupt the many. Human ideals seem to play a big role in culture, literature, and religion. However, there is of course no true human ideal because no two people think exactly the same way. The ideals ranged from fighting for your home and to kill for glory to achieving the ultimate good of happiness. Perfection in this world is merely an idea and it has a hard time fitting in with anything since nothing is truly perfect.

Benefits of Swimming

Swimming Rejuvenating, the body mind and spirit†¦. Fitness development The fitness development of swimming can be classified into1 group and 2 sub-sections: Performing swimming regularly can help one in building cardio which is important for both weight loss and good cardiovascular health. When the workout is increased gradually by swimming strokes in the water, the heart rate and muscle activity is improved. This increases blood flow to your muscles, which results in more nutrients being delivered to them. It decreases risks of cardiovascular diseases like high blood pressure ands prevents obesity when calories are being burnt during your workout sessions. Always remember to warm up before a proper swimming workout session. After a workout session you can do a few basic laps to cool down and help your muscles recover and relax your body after a workout session. When you are doing high-volume workouts, with a good amount of breathing, this is an aerobic swimming workout. Anaerobic swimming workouts have to do with sprinting. However, simply sprinting, even if it is on a pace clock, does not make the workout anaerobic. By extending the rest period, and demanding the maximal speed of the athlete during springs, is an anaerobic swimming workout. By just performing simple water exercises known as water Aerobics, one can get a great workout session. Your aerobic endurance is your ability to exercise your whole body for a long period of time, at a moderate intensity like swimming. When you are first starting to train and you are not very active start off slowly. To increase your aerobic level you need to overload your body. It is a low impact workout session and so any injuries to your joints and muscles are prevented. Equipment needed? When in competition – Swimsuit: Usually very tight and sometimes longer down the legs and arms. This provides the least amount of drag so you take off is al lot faster. Goggles: Protect your eyes and see everything more clearly avoid any damage to the eyes and contract water-borne infections. Cap: Cuts out drag that hair has (weight wise). Swimming block: The raised platform from which a swimmer starts their race. It has a non-slip surface. Ear plugs: are made of rubber, they protect ears from water and noise and easy to install and remove Stopwatch: is used to keep count of time for laps racing ect. Towel: absorbent cloth used to dry the body. Racing Lane: These lines are made of polypropylene rope and pliable plastic floats, these separate the pool and are used for swimmers to have individual lanes. When in training – Fins: Work your legs and add propulsion to your swimming with fins. Long fins are great for beginners = develop ankle flexibility. Short fins are great = speed to your swimming. Kickboard. To work your legs exclusively, it allows your upper body to float while you kick with your legs. Paddles: Increase pull against the water. Where can I swim? The ideal location in which to perform water aerobics is in an indoor swimming pool where the water temperature is controlled. Health clubs offer swimming facilities along with the regular gym membership, they provide a race – style pool with classes and programs were you would be watched over by a professional trainer so that you can obtain maximum results during practice/training and maintain no injury /health risks these however are the latest trends to do in group training. Outside ponds, pools or lakes can be used, but an indoor pool is preferred. Benefits of swimming Physical Benefits: It reduces blood pressure, and risk of having a stroke. It reduces your resting heart rate and increases your cardiac input. It makes your heart pump blood effectively and efficiently therefore your heart muscle strength increases Swimming as an exercise requires all the movement muscles to co-ordinate at the same time. Water creates more resistance. As a result of this you develop stronger muscles, maintain muscular balance and ehabilitates you muscles. Good stretching habits, can greatly improve flexibility. The smoothness of the movements helps lengthen and stretch muscles giving the appearance of being more toned, and having a healthy physique. Swimming is a very low impact exercise taking away any excess pressure on the bones, joints and muscles. It is one of the safest and cushioned forms of physical exercise. It improves the ability to control and maintain health y weight During 30 minutes of swimming it is possible to burn 260 calories. Low water temperatures also stimulate blood circulation, builds up endurance and metabolism Social Benefits: Whether at the beach or a pool the best form of recreation is swimming; it is a lot of fun and can be great way to socialize, friendships are made and you meet/interact with people from all different walks of life. You can join a water aerobics class or a master’s swim practice and socialize while you workout because it’s a safe work out program. Spiritual/Emotional benefits: Helps develop a positive attitude but mainly swimming forces you to regulate your breathing and allows more oxygen to flow into muscles. It also helps in massaging your muscles and relieves stress and tension. Being surrounded by the warm water facilitates a calming and meditative feeling. Contributes to a feeling of well-being as well as renewing energy and teaching patience. For a first time swimmer it removes the fear of water, preferably swimming should be introduced at an early age. Environmental responsibilities you should consider Chlorine in swimming pools- The chemicals found in chlorinated water are effective in purifying your pool but are discovered to have negative effects on the environment. Chlorine dissolves when mixed with water. It can also escape from water and enter air under certain conditions. Once in air or in water, chlorine reacts with other chemicals. It combines with inorganic material in water to form chloride salts, and with organic material in water to form chlorinated organic chemicals. Chlorine causes environmental harm at low levels. Plants and animals are not likely to store chlorine. However, laboratory studies show that exposure to chlorine in air can affect the immune system, the blood, the heart and the respiratory system of animals. Therefore Chlorine is especially harmful to organisms living in water and in oil. Chlorine affects towards humans – It is also known that pure chlorine is very toxic, even small amounts can be deadly to your health. When small amounts of chlorine are breathed in during short time periods, it can affect the reputational system. Effects vary from coughing and chest pains, skin and eyes. Alternatives include -Bromine has less of an odor therefore it can b e used as a sanitiser for an indoor pools. Salt is another alternative. Basically you need a unit called a Salt Cell, which passes an electric current through the water and converts salt into chlorine. Cancer risk among people drinking chlorinated water is 93% higher than among those whose water does not contain chlorine. † *Don't eat too much and then swim, allow at least an hour after a meal before swimming. Don't swim after taking alcohol or on an empty stomach. Make sure your pool is clean; dirty pools can give you an earache or perhaps even an upset stomach. Over chlorinated pools will be more subtle and are more dangerous. Always shower before and after swimming you never know what you might bring into the water, in terms of bacteria. When inside- Don't swim below diving boards, someone may land on your head always check areas where the depth of the pool changes suddenly. Don't use a mask or fins in the pool rather save them for the beach. Don't run near the edge of the pool, you may slip and hurt someone or yourself. Always check the temperature of the pools before diving in- make sure you do not dive in a shallow area. Always make sure you were your swimming caps, earplug and goggles, this prevents infection in the eyes, ears and chlorine damages your hair. Make sure you do not overly exercise (when you are tired stop and rest) and make sure you are in good shape to swim. When outside or at the beach -Choose a safe area many beaches have safe swimming areas clearly marked with buoy lines and with life guards on duty Beware of waves they can flip you over and possibly injure you. Headlands and rocky areas can quickly be surrounded by tides and at some beaches the water depth can increase suddenly – so go with caution to avoid this. Avoid strong currents; they can drag you away from shore or onto rocks. Protect against heat stroke and dehydration in hot summer weather. Aim or purpose of swimming Swimming is not only fun but is one of the best ways to stay fit and healthy. By swimming regularly you will be leading a healthy lifestyle. It is an excellent form of exercise where all the muscles of the body are used when one swims. It is a sport that will bring kids fitness and enjoyment for life. It enhances children and adults natural flexibility by exercising all of their major joints. Since swimming requires constant supply of oxygen to the muscles, it is considered as an aerobic exercise, and it is believed that this helps to reduce stress so that you can just tune out and relax. Swimming caters for all skill levels. You can perform many different exercises when in the water. It also helps develop coordination because it requires combinations of complex movements of all parts of the body, enhancing muscle function, grace, and mobility. Not only does it feel great it is also effective in weight loss. As swimming is an easy and ———————– Safety when swimming simple exercise one feels refreshed. As you enjoy working out in the water your mind is at peace and away from all the worries.

The Stars And Galaxies Essays - Spectroscopists, Stellar Astronomy

The Stars And Galaxies Essays - Spectroscopists, Stellar Astronomy The Stars And Galaxies MEGAN JACKSON MS. KEYS SCIENCE DECEMBER 5,2000 THE STARS AND GALAXIES Have you ever looked up at the sky and wondered what are those bright and shiny things up there. Stars: a natural luminious body visible in the sky especially at night. A self-luminious gaseous celestial body ofgreat mass which produces energy by means of nuclear fusion reactions, whose shape is usually spheroidal, and whose size may be as small as the earth or larger than the earths orbit. Galaxies: Any of the very large groups of stars and associated matter that are found throughout the universe. In 1802, William Wollaston noted that the spectrum of sunlight did not appear to be a continious band of colors, but rather had a series of dark lines superimposed on it. Wollaston attributed the lines to natural boundaries between colors. Joseph Fraunhofer made a more careful set of observations of the solar spectrum in 1814 and found some 600 dark lines, and he specifically measured the wavelenght of 324 of them. Many of the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum retain the notations he created to designate them. In 1864, Sir William Huggins matched some of these dark lines in the spectra from other stars with terrestrial substances, demonstrating that the stars are made of the same materials of everyday material rather than exotic substances. This paved the way for modern spectroscopy. Since even before the discovery of the spectra, scientists had tried to find ways to catergorize stars. By observing spectra , astronomers realized that the large numbers of stars exhibit a small number of distinct patterns in their spectral lines. Classification by the spectral features quickly proved to be a powerful tool for understanding stars. The current spectral classification scheme was developed at Harvard Observatory in the early 20th century. Work was begun by Henry Draper who photographed the first spectrum of Vega in 1872. After his death, his wife donated the equipment and a sum of money to the Observatory to continue his work. The bulk of classification work was done by Annie Jump Cannon from 1918 to 1924. The original scheme used capital letters running alphabetically, but the subsequent revisions have reduced this as stellar evolution and typing has become better understood. The work was published in the Henry Draper Catalog and Henry Draper Extension which contained spectra of 225,000 stars down to ninth magnitude. The scheme is based on lines which are mainly sensitiveto stellar surface tempertures rather than actual composition differences,gravity, or luminosity. Inportant lines

Code Switching Definition and Examples in Language

Code Switching Definition and Examples in Language Code switching (also code-switching, CS) is the practice of moving back and forth between two languages  or between two dialects or registers of the same language at one time. Code switching  occurs far more often in  conversation  than in  writing. It is also called code-mixing and style-shifting.  It is studied by linguists to examine when people do it, such as under what circumstances do bilingual speakers switch from one to another, and it is studied by sociologists to determine why people do it, such as how it relates to their belonging to a group or the surrounding context of the conversation (casual, professional, etc.) Examples and Observations Code-switching performs several functions (Zentella, 1985). First, people may use code-switching to hide fluency or memory problems in the second language (but this accounts for about only 10 percent of code switches). Second, code-switching is used to mark switching from informal situations (using native languages) to formal situations (using the second language). Third, code-switching is used to exert control, especially between parents and children. Fourth, code-switching is used to align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as a member of an ethnic group). Code-switching also functions to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal relationships (Johnson, 2000, p. 184). (William B. Gudykunst, Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. Sage, 2004)In a relatively small Puerto Rican neighborhood in New Jersey, some members freely used code-switching styles and extreme forms of bo rrowing both in everyday casual talk and in more formal gatherings. Other local residents were careful to speak only Spanish with a minimum of loans on formal occasions, reserving code-switching styles for informal talk. Others again spoke mainly English, using Spanish or code-switching styles only with small children or with neighbors. (John J. Gumperz and Jenny Cook-Gumperz, Introduction: Language and the Communication of Social Identity. Language and Social Identity. Cambridge University Press, 1982) African-American Vernacular English and Standard American English It is common to find references to black speakers who code switch between AAVE [African-American Vernacular English] and SAE [Standard American English] in the presence of whites or others speaking SAE. In employment interviews (Hopper WIlliams, 1973; Akinnaso Ajirotutu, 1982), formal education in a range of settings (Smitherman, 2000), legal discourse (Garner Rubin, 1986), and various other contexts, it is advantageous for blacks to have code-switching competence. For a black person who can switch from AAVE to SAE in the presence of others who are speaking SAE, code switching is a skill that holds benefits in relation to the way success is often measured in institutional and professional settings. However, there are more dimensions to code switching than the black/white patterns in institutional settings. (George B. Ray, Language and Interracial Communication in the United States: Speaking in Black and White. Peter Lang, 2009) A Fuzzy-Edged Concept The tendency to reify code switching as a unitary and clearly identifiable phenomenon has been questioned by [Penelope] Gardner-Chloros (1995: 70), who prefers to view code switching as a fuzzy-edged concept. For her, the conventional view of code switching implies that speakers make binary choices, operating in one code or the other at any given time, when in fact code switching overlaps with other kinds of bilingual mixture, and the boundaries between them are difficult to establish. Moreover, it is often impossible to categorize the two codes involved in code switching as discrete and isolatable. (Donald Winford, An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell, 2003) Code Switching and Language Change The role of CS, along with other symptoms of contact, in language change is still a matter of discussion. ... On the one hand, the relationship between contact and language change is now generally acknowledged: few espouse the traditional view that change follows universal, language-internal principles such as simplification, and takes place in the absence of contact with other varieties (James Milroy 1998). On the other hand, ... some researchers still downplay the role of CS in change, and contrast it with borrowing, which is seen as a form of convergence. (Penelope Gardner-Chloros, Contact and Code-Switching. The Handbook of Language Contact, ed. by Raymond Hickey. Blackwell, 2010)